Movable type printing began in China with Bi Sheng in the 11th century, later revolutionized in Europe by Gutenberg’s press.

Andrew Wiles proved Fermat's Last Theorem in the 1990s, resolving a problem that had stood for over 350 years.

Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin in 1921, revolutionizing treatment of diabetes and saving millions of lives.

Brahmagupta (7th century) formalized the rules for zero and negative numbers, laying the foundation of modern mathematics.

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron using cathode ray experiments in 1897, earning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906.

Kantian ethics emphasizes duty and moral laws derived from reason, proposing actions are right if based on universal principles.

Montesquieu in *The Spirit of Laws* (1748) emphasized separation of powers, inspiring modern democratic constitutions like the US.

Marcus Aurelius, a Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher, wrote *Meditations*, reflecting on virtue, duty, and leadership.

The Opium Wars (1839–42, 1856–60) were fought between China and Britain, largely over the opium trade and sovereignty.

Alan Turing laid foundations of computation and artificial intelligence, creating the Turing Machine model and breaking wartime codes.