Constantinople was renamed Istanbul officially in 1930 after the establishment of the Republic of Turkey under Atatürk.

Frank Gehry designed the Guggenheim Bilbao (opened 1997), noted for its curving titanium forms and revitalization of the city.

The Vedas, composed in Sanskrit around 1500–500 BCE, are the oldest sacred scriptures of Hinduism, guiding rituals and philosophy.

Isaac Newton formulated universal gravitation, showing that bodies attract with a force proportional to mass and inversely to distance squared.

Andrew Wiles proved Fermat's Last Theorem in the 1990s, resolving a problem that had stood for over 350 years.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa, begun in 1173, was intended as a bell tower for Pisa’s cathedral, famous for its unintended tilt.

Magna Carta established legal limits on King John of England, becoming a foundation for constitutional law and parliamentary rule.

Topology studies spatial properties preserved through stretching or bending, without tearing or gluing, influencing modern physics.

The Big Bang theory describes the origin of the universe 13.8 billion years ago as a rapid expansion from a singularity.

The 1929 crash triggered the Great Depression, causing widespread unemployment, poverty, and global economic collapse.