Mars is called the Red Planet due to iron oxide (rust) on its surface that gives it a reddish appearance.

Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe (1519–1522); although he died en route, the voyage completed the circuit.

The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) was a series of conflicts between England and France over territorial and dynastic claims.

The Magna Carta, signed in 1215, limited the power of the English king and laid foundations for constitutional law.

Winston Churchill used the term “Iron Curtain” in 1946 to describe the division of Eastern and Western Europe.

Montesquieu in *The Spirit of Laws* (1748) emphasized separation of powers, inspiring modern democratic constitutions like the US.

The ampere is the SI unit of electric current, defined by the flow of electric charge per second through a conductor.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacterial agent of tuberculosis, a contagious respiratory disease affecting millions worldwide.

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897 using cathode ray experiments, a major step in atomic physics.

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron using cathode ray experiments in 1897, earning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906.