J.J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1897 using cathode ray experiments, a major step in atomic physics.

Guru Nanak (1469–1539) founded Sikhism in Punjab, teaching devotion to one God, equality, and social justice.

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote “God is dead” in *The Gay Science* (1882), reflecting on decline of religion in modern society.

Marie Curie, with Pierre, discovered radium and polonium in 1898, pioneering radioactivity research and earning two Nobel Prizes.

Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" (1859), proposing natural selection as a mechanism for evolution.

Antoine Lavoisier standardized chemical nomenclature, discovered oxygen’s role in combustion, and is considered father of modern chemistry.

The Treaty of Tordesillas split new overseas territories between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope to avoid conflict.

William of Normandy defeated Harold at Hastings in 1066, beginning Norman rule in England. This is a well-documented historical or scientific fact.

The Opium Wars (1839–42, 1856–60) were conflicts between China and Britain over opium trade, leading to unequal treaties.

The Indus Valley Civilization (2600–1900 BCE) was centered in present-day Pakistan, with sites like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.